Application of a constraints-led approach to pedagogy in schools: embarking on a journey to nurture physical literacy in primary physical education

Background: Oversimplified, reductionist approaches to operationalising Physical Literacy (PL) have been a barrier to the development of a complex, dynamic and embodied understanding of the individual Physical Literacy journey. Further, there has been no appropriate approach that might allow practitioners to integrate Physical Literacy in Physical Education (PE). Whilst popular approaches, such as Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) and Game Sense (GS), for operationalising learner-centred and problem-based learning, have gained professional traction in the last three decades, the development of a comprehensive theoretical basis to underpin pedagogical principles has been neglected – particularly in Physical Education. Pedagogical approaches grounded in play have gained popularity as a vehicle for Physical Literacy development in Physical Education. Despite the prominence of a Constraint-Led Approach (CLA) in sport pedagogy to assist in developing ‘the intelligent, autonomous individual’ in sport, application to Physical Education is limited. Purpose: In this article, we propose key pedagogical principles of a Constraints-Led Approach (CLA) in primary physical education, underpinned by the theoretical framework of Ecological Dynamics (ED). Driven by the challenge of designing affordance landscapes for learning, we present our reflections on a recently designed PE curriculum for primary schools, Boing, which could facilitate the development of movement capacities in play-based curricula designed to nurture the Physical Literacy journey for individuals. An articulation of support for the key theoretical ideas is provided in this paper. Design: This is achieved through reflections on the play-based curriculum (BOING) founded on the principles of Ecological Dynamics (ED) underpinning a Constraints-Led approach (CLA) to better serve the implementation of a Physical Literacy focussed Physical Education in a Primary school setting based on key principles for delivery. Findings: Summarising the findings, the we were able to highlight the importance of developing key principles for delivering a theoretically informed curriculum that elicits key principles of Physical Literacy. Whilst movement skills are key, these approaches are able to elicit the intended outcomes in learners of confidence, motivation and competence (Whitehead 2010, 2016). Conclusions: A CLA affords the theoretical design of play-based curricula beyond just play or sport towards purposeful, inclusive learning environments. Practitioners should look to underpin their practice with key theoretical ideas. This paper is of particular interest to those coaches and teachers tasked with designing practical environments for learning beyond the rhetoric of skill development in sport

Evaluating weaknesses of "perceptual-cognitive training" and "brain training" methods in sport: An ecological dynamics critique

The recent upsurge in "brain training and perceptual-cognitive training," proposing to improve isolated processes, such as brain function, visual perception, and decision-making, has created significant interest in elite sports practitioners, seeking to create an "edge" for athletes. The claims of these related "performance-enhancing industries" can be considered together as part of a process training approach proposing enhanced cognitive and perceptual skills and brain capacity to support performance in everyday life activities, including sport. For example, the "process training industry" promotes the idea that playing games not only makes you a better player but also makes you smarter, more alert, and a faster learner. In this position paper, we critically evaluate the effectiveness of both types of process training programmes in generalizing transfer to sport performance. These issues are addressed in three stages. First, we evaluate empirical evidence in support of perceptual-cognitive process training and its application to enhancing sport performance. Second, we critically review putative modularized mechanisms underpinning this kind of training, addressing limitations and subsequent problems. Specifically, we consider merits of this highly specific form of training, which focuses on training of isolated processes such as cognitive processes (attention, memory, thinking) and visual perception processes, separately from performance behaviors and actions. We conclude that these approaches may, at best, provide some "general transfer" of underlying processes to specific sport environments, but lack "specificity of transfer" to contextualize actual performance behaviors. A major weakness of process training methods is their focus on enhancing the performance in body "modules" (e.g., eye, brain, memory, anticipatory sub-systems). What is lacking is evidence on how these isolated components are modified and subsequently interact with other process "modules," which are considered to underlie sport performance. Finally, we propose how an ecological dynamics approach, aligned with an embodied framework of cognition undermines the rationale that modularized processes can enhance performance in competitive sport. An ecological dynamics perspective proposes that the body is a complex adaptive system, interacting with performance environments in a functionally integrated manner, emphasizing that the inter-relation between motor processes, cognitive and perceptual functions, and the constraints of a sport task is best understood at the performer-environment scale of analysis

Mental Toughness and Associated Personality Characteristics of Marathon des Sables Athletes

Mental toughness (MT) is commonly referred to as an important prerequisite for sustained athletic achievement. The increased research focus on MT has led to the development of a consistent debate centered around whether the construct is a unidimensional or multidimensional trait, and whether it can be differentiated from similar constructs such as hardiness. In order to move toward more clarity of MT, the present study is exploratory in nature, using athletes who have competed in the Marathon des Sables (MdS) ultra-endurance event. The MdS is a timed 250 km race in the Sahara Desert that takes place over 6 days in temperatures exceeding 40°C. Forty two British MdS competitors were recruited via the United Kingdom organizing company. Each participant completed the NEO PI-R as a measure of the five major domains of personality, as well as the six traits or facets that define each domain. Additionally, they completed the Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ). The MdS sample’s NEO PI-R results were compared against general population norms, and results showed a distinct ultra-endurance athlete profile characterized by significantly higher levels of extraversion and openness to experience. Additionally, the MdS sample’s SMTQ scores were higher than the normed sample consisting of a collection of athletes representing multiple sports. Finally, linear regression analyses indicated a convergence between the two measures, supporting the argument that MT may in fact be measured by a general personality questionnaire such as the NEO PI-R

Psychological factors involved in adherence to sport injury rehabilitation: A systematic review

The objective of this article is to review the extant literature on the psychological factors related to adherence to sport injury rehabilitation among athletes. Published English language articles were identified using electronic databases. The quality of the identified articles was assessed using a hybrid quality assessment tool based on the Effective Public Health Practice Project tool and the Health Technology Assessment Programme for evaluating non-randomised intervention studies. Seventeen papers – one using a treatment intervention, two qualitative articles and 14 descriptive studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria and were systematically reviewed. The results suggested that there were two categories of factors that determine adherence to rehabilitation in this population: person and situational. Person-specific factors included the impact of the injury, justification for adherence, motivation, confidence/self-efficacy, coping, social support, locus of control, cognitive appraisal, coping and psychological skills. Situational factors included the characteristics, strategies and effectiveness of the physical therapist and treatment efficacy. Due to the scant nature and quality of the studies included in this review, we conclude that research of strong design is required to provide a greater evidence-base and to help inform the role that sport psychologists could play in designing interventions to improve adherence to rehabilitatio

Gas phase characterization of the noncovalent quaternary structure of Cholera toxin and the Cholera toxin B subunit pentamer

Cholera toxin (CTx) is an AB5 cytotonic protein that has medical relevance in cholera and as a novel mucosal adjuvant. Here, we report an analysis of the noncovalent homopentameric complex of CTx B chain (CTx B5) using electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometry and tandem mass spectrometry and the analysis of the noncovalent hexameric holotoxin usingelectrospray ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry over a range of pH values that correlate with those encountered by this toxin after cellular uptake. We show that noncovalent interactions within the toxin assemblies were maintained under both acidic and neutral conditions in the gas phase. However, unlike the related Escherichia coli Shiga-like toxin B5 pentamer (SLTx B), the CTx B5 pentamer was stable at low pH, indicating that additional interactions must be present within the latter. Structural comparison of the CTx B monomer interface reveals an additional α-helix that is absent in the SLTx B monomer. In silico energy calculations support interactions between this helix and the adjacent monomer. These data provide insight into the apparent stabilization of CTx B relative to SLTx B

The effectiveness of constraint-led training on skill development in interceptive sports: a systematic review (Clark, McEwan and Christie) – a commentary

Clark, McEwan and Christie's systematic review1 offers a timely examination of current literature assessing effects of a constraints-led approach (CLA) to training on ‘technical and cognitive skill in sport’, in comparison to traditional training methods. They concluded that, currently, there is strong evidence to advocate for the effects of training interventions that espouse benefits of constraints-led training on acquiring skill in interceptive actions. Clark, McEwan and Christie reported that 18 studies satisfied their proposed inclusion criteria and, of these studies, 77% provided evidence of the effectiveness of the CLA. Consequently, Clark, McEwan and Christie argued that a ‘the implementation of the constraints-led approach within interceptive sport can be advocated’ (p. 17). This is a revealing insight, which supports their claims that this finding ‘provides the opportunity for researchers to collect more compelling evidence to answer the question: “Does constraint-led training assist with the development of technical skills within interceptive sport?”’. While we endorse their call for more empirical evidence on the effectiveness of a CLA to practice and training design, we qualify it by highlighting some limitations of Clark, McEwan and Christie's systematic review

Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) U-Pb carbonate geochronology: strategies, progress, and limitations

Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) U–Pb geochronology of carbonate minerals, calcite in particular, is rapidly gaining popularity as an absolute dating method. The high spatial resolution of LA-ICP-MS U–Pb carbonate geochronology has benefits over traditional isotope dilution methods, particularly for diagenetic and hydrothermal calcite, because uranium and lead are heterogeneously distributed on the sub-millimetre scale. At the same time, this can provide limitations to the method, as locating zones of radiogenic lead can be time-consuming and “hit or miss”. Here, we present strategies for dating carbonates with in situ techniques, through imaging and petrographic techniques to data interpretation; our examples are drawn from the dating of fracture-filling calcite, but our discussion is relevant to all carbonate applications. We review several limitations to the method, including open-system behaviour, variable initial-lead compositions, and U–daughter disequilibrium. We also discuss two approaches to data collection: traditional spot analyses guided by petrographic and elemental imaging and image-based dating that utilises LA-ICP-MS elemental and isotopic map data

Brief of Amici Curiae Antitrust Law Professors in O\u27Bannon v. NCAA

On November 21, 2014, 15 professors of antitrust law at leading U.S. universities submitted an amicus brief in the O\u27Bannon v. NCAA 9th Circuit appeal in support of the NCAA. They have an interest in the proper development of antitrust jurisprudence, and they agree that the court below misapplied the “less restrictive alternative” prong of the rule of reason inquiry for assessing the legality of restraints of trade under Section 1 of the Sherman Act, 15 U.S.C. § 1. They are concerned that the district court’s approach to the antitrust rule of reason, if affirmed, would grant undue authority to antitrust courts to regulate the details of organizational rules, and would also undermine the NCAA’s goal of amateurism in collegiate athletics, a goal that courts have recognized universally as valid and important — and in which the undersigned, as academics themselves, are deeply interested